Archaeology is the scientific study of past cultures and the way people lived based on the things they left behind. Culture is the shared ways of life learned by a group of people, including their language, religion, technology, and values.
Archaeologists study past cultures by examining artefacts, objects made, used, or changed by humans. Have you ever found a penny on the ground? That is an artefact that was lost by someone. Years from now, that penny could be found by an archaeologist, and it would be studied as part of American culture in the early twenty-first century.
Artefacts are usually found buried in the ground. Over time, soil builds up and covers things left on the ground. That is why archaeologists dig in the dirt, orexcavate, to find the artefacts. Any place where human activity occurred and where artefacts are found is called an archaeological site. There are two types of archaeological sites, prehistoric and historic.
Prehistoric sites are those which occurred before the culture began writing records of daily life. Prehistory is more of a puzzle because most of what we know about prehistoric people is from the artifacts they left behind. That means archaeologists must try to understand how the artifacts were used without being able to "look up" the answers in a book. Due to this, archaeologists sometimes make incorrect inferences or guesses. In Alabama, and most of the United States, prehistoric sites were created by the ancestors of Native American Indians.
Archaeologists study past cultures by examining artefacts, objects made, used, or changed by humans. Have you ever found a penny on the ground? That is an artefact that was lost by someone. Years from now, that penny could be found by an archaeologist, and it would be studied as part of American culture in the early twenty-first century.
Artefacts are usually found buried in the ground. Over time, soil builds up and covers things left on the ground. That is why archaeologists dig in the dirt, orexcavate, to find the artefacts. Any place where human activity occurred and where artefacts are found is called an archaeological site. There are two types of archaeological sites, prehistoric and historic.
Prehistoric sites are those which occurred before the culture began writing records of daily life. Prehistory is more of a puzzle because most of what we know about prehistoric people is from the artifacts they left behind. That means archaeologists must try to understand how the artifacts were used without being able to "look up" the answers in a book. Due to this, archaeologists sometimes make incorrect inferences or guesses. In Alabama, and most of the United States, prehistoric sites were created by the ancestors of Native American Indians.
Types of archaeology
Archaeology involves reconstructing history with the help of material remains. It is a stimulating job of interpreting material culture in human terms. It involves both, toiling hard in the field as well as formulating hypotheses in the laboratory/study. An archaeologist has to be, therefore, extremely well-versed in other disciplines which archaeology encompasses, that include history, anthropology, and other social and general sciences. It is thus a subject having a multidisciplinary approach, wherein every small thing matters.
There are many types of archaeology, these are the following categories:
There are many types of archaeology, these are the following categories:
Environmental Archaeology
Environmental archaeology deals with the study of interrelationship between the ancient people and their natural environment. It involves three sub-disciplines of archaeology, viz., zooarchaeology that deals with the study of ancient animal remains, geoarchaeology that deals with the study of soil, sediments, rocks, natural deposits, etc., and archaeobotany that studies ancient plant remains. Environmental archaeology answers questions relating to the kind of natural habitat that the ancient people were surrounded by, the plants and animals living in that age, varieties of wild and cultivated crops, animals that were hunted and those which were domesticated, species of plants and animals that are now extinct, climatic changes that took place over a period of time, and the effects that the changes in natural environment had on the lives of the people and on their subsequent disappearance. Environmental archaeology encompasses field studies along with laboratory experiments.
Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is the science that deals with the ethnographic investigation of living communities in order to acquire knowledge of the past. It involves the application of anthropological methods to a large extent. By using ethnoarchaeological techniques, archaeologists, in a way, attempt to link the past with the present. They try to understand how the ancient people in a given region may have lived, keeping as their basis, the tangible and intangible culture of the modern communities. One can get valuable insights into ancient social structures, religious and cultural beliefs, technology, etc., by applying the principles of ethnoarchaeology. But, the link between modern and ancient societies is of course still very ambiguous. This is because, even if two societies share some common traits, they may be distinct from each other in many aspects, which tend to change by default over a period of time. Nevertheless, studying advanced techniques of modern communities may help to a certain extent to provide an insight into the rudimentary techniques, which may have been used by the ancients
Landscape Archaeology
Landscape archaeology is a broad division in archaeology that deals with the study of the various changes that take place in different landscapes, both naturally as well as due to human intervention. On the basis of this, landscapes have been classified into natural and cultural landscapes, for archaeological purposes. The study of how landscapes and natural habitats are interlinked with human behavior and cultural changes is actually very extensive. There are a variety of changes that landscapes may undergo over a period of time. These include natural changes with respect to topography, climate, soil, natural calamities such as floods, landslides, tsunamis, rivers changing their courses, and so on, and human induced changes such as agriculture, industrial and construction activities, clearing of forest areas, etc. Interestingly, the methods in landscape archaeology are also used in order to to analyze inequalities that may have prevailed in a social structure at a given period of time.
Underwater Archaeology
This is also known as marine archaeology or maritime archaeology. It is associated with the study of underwater evidences such as shipwrecks, water-buried cities, and other inundated archaeological sites. It is an expensive branch of archaeology and incurs a much higher cost than any terrestrial archaeological excavation. Knowledge of specific techniques and methods that need to be adopted in order to carry out excavations underwater is a prerequisite. Archaeologists practicing in this field attempt to discover submerged evidences by diving into the deep waters along with sophisticated archaeological tools. An underwater excavation may also turn out to be a little risky at times because one cannot guess what the conditions under the sea would be like. However, it makes an exciting profession for adventure lovers.
Aviation Archaeology
Aviation archaeology deals with finding historical remains of aircraft, air-borne weaponry, abandoned air bases or runways, and the like. In short, it deals with everything that has to do with the history of aviation. Sometimes, remains from aircraft crashes are found under the sea, which are eventually recovered, recorded and studied. It is due to this reason that many people consider aviation archaeology as a branch of marine archaeology, but this may only be true to a limited extent. This is because there are also a number of aviation archaeological remains found on land, in which case, it becomes a separate division in itself. Crash sites differ largely in magnitude and remains. The remains range from military remains to civil remnants. Instances of ancient air bases found by aviation archaeologists have also been recorded. As far as the actual professional practice of aviation archaeology is concerned, there may be some legal constraints, which can be overcome through adequate paperwork and permissions.
Aerial Archaeology
Aerial archaeology, as the name suggests, is the investigation of archaeological remains from the air. This is a concept that gained impetus after aerial survey and photography were considered to be important during the two world wars. Archaeologists thought of applying this technique to record the bird's-eye view of archaeological sites, so that they could get a better perspective of the same. Doing aerial surveys also help archaeologists to spot new sites, which otherwise would have been a difficult task, as some things can be better captured from an altitude. Aerial archaeology does not involve actual excavation, which is quite obvious. On the contrary, it involves detailed exploration from an altitude, so that newer sites can be discovered, and the sites which already exist can be recorded from a different perspective. Nowadays, the technique of satellite imagery also forms part of aerial archaeology.
Battlefield Archaeology
Battlefield archaeology, also known as military archaeology, is one of the most intriguing types of archaeologies. It deals with digging up battlefields of the past and recovering evidences relating to military activities, which may have been responsible for subsequent changes in the social, political and economic spheres of the society. Archaeological evidences recovered from battlefields have the capability to alter those historical viewpoints which have been widely accepted and acknowledged. Evidences on such sites include remains of implements of war, skeletal remains, and various artifacts related to military history. These so-called war sites give valuable evidences to events, which took place not only during a given war, but also before and after it, because not only actual battlefields but even military camp sites provide valuable evidences. Also, just as all other sites tell us about how and when people lived, war sites tell us how and when they died. All in all, battlefield archaeology is an engrossing case-study of how written historical accounts can undergo changes when actual material remains relating to the recorded events are uncovered.
Commercial Archaeology
Commercial archaeology is actually a sub-discipline of archaeology, which deals with everything that is related to commerce and trade. This includes evidences with respect to the commodities that were traded and bartered, numismatic finds, ancient forms of transportation that were used for commercial purposes, and so on. The study of ancient trade routes and sea ports, harbors and marketplaces, is also included in commercial archaeology. This is a very gripping study, as it answers questions such as which countries had trade relations and in what commodities, what were the media of exchange between them, how the commodities were transported, who and what all was involved, how they coordinated, etc. Many a time, at commercial sites, ancient inscriptions are found, which are obviously very valuable resources that are used for recording economic histories.
Industrial Archaeology
Industrial archaeology is another kind of archaeology, which studies the material remains of industrial by-products and artifacts. It does not deal with the movement of goods from one place to another. On the contrary, it deals with the production of goods and the various processes involved in the same. Evidences from industrial sites tell us about the industries that existed during a given period in history, things that were manufactured then, the tools that were used at that time, and attempt to answer queries like what people did other than agriculture (which primarily was the main occupation in many regions), what, where and how did they manufacture, what raw materials were used and where did they get them from, how advanced was their technology, why did they manufacture what they did, and so on. Evidences recovered from such sites generally include those related to activities such as manufacturing, mining, quarrying, milling, building roads and other infrastructure, etc.
Salvage Archaeology
Salvage archaeology, also known as rescue archaeology, is a name given to an archaeological excavation which needs to be carried out in an emergency and with utmost urgency on threatened sites. Salvage archaeological operations are carried out on sites that are on the verge of being destroyed by new road constructions, dams, buildings, or any other kind of infrastructure development. The duty of the archaeologist then, is to locate as many sites as possible in an assigned area, explore them, and excavate them if deemed necessary, and ultimately record in detail all the finds that have been procured. Generally, in case of salvage archaeology, time is a constraint, and so detailed excavation is difficult to carry out. Therefore, archaeologists tend to record whatever is found on the surface at the time of exploration. But, if it is realized during the exploration that the site holds a prominent place in history, then detailed excavation can be carried out and can thus alter the construction plans in some way or the other.
Forensic Archaeology
Forensic archaeology is a newly developed stream and a very interesting one. It pertains to the use of archaeological techniques in finding evidences on crime scenes. Forensic archaeologists are generally employed by the security services in order to investigate crimes and catch the culprits. Duties of archaeologists in this field of archaeology include collecting evidences like human burials, artifacts, footprints, tool-marks, etc., and trying to figure out the situation in which a particular crime might have happened; and to ascertain the influences on the remains of external factors that may have disturbed the crime scene. They also try to find whether all the remains are in situ, and if not, how and when they landed up where they currently lie. The findings of forensic archaeologists prove to be very effective in the court of law, and help the police to a great extent in the investigation of the occurred crime.
Prehistoric Archaeology
Prehistory is the name assigned to the period before the invention of writing. Obviously, there are no written records or historical accounts from the prehistoric age, and so, whatever we know about prehistory is simply through physical archaeological finds. Prehistory has been classified into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic periods, on the basis of the developments that took place over a period of time in the human lifestyles. Prehistory also includes periods before the lithic age (stone age), which preceded the existence of humans. Thus, prehistoric archaeology is actually a vast discipline, and there is a lot of scope for original research, as there are a number of prehistoric mysteries that are to be yet unraveled.
Protohistoric Archaeology
Protohistory is the period that lies in between prehistory and history. Though this is a period that came after the invention of writing, many of the evidences have not been deciphered yet. Protohistory encompasses the bronze age and iron age, and sometimes even the copper age, but this differs from region to region. Dating of this period is a difficult task for an archaeologist, as this again depends on regional and cultural aspects. But, we know from the data available that it was during the protohistoric period that great ancient civilizations of the world sprang up, and the world took its first and prominent steps towards urbanization. Thus, it is an important transitional phase, and sites are loaded with surprising artifacts, which makes protohistoric archaeology an interesting option.
Historical Archaeology
Historical archaeology studies that period of the history of mankind from which we have ample written sources that tell us a huge variety of things. So, historical archaeology involves the study of not only the artifacts recovered from the archaeological sites but also of the documented evidences that have been left behind. Sites relating to historical archaeology are spread across the world in large numbers, and each of these help reconstruct different kinds of aspects of human past, such as industries, trade, art and architecture, social and cultural history, military history, and so on. However, it should be noted that historical records are not always correct, and hence, it should be supplemented with other evidences.
Classical Archaeology
Classical archaeology is a special branch of archaeology which pertains only to Greece and Rome. It deals with a detailed study of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Classical archaeology not only studies these two civilizations individually, but also in relation to other contemporary civilizations of that period. It also studies the influences of and on other civilizations of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is a very interesting field of study, but because it pertains to specific regions, is limited in scope.
Tools needed for classical archaeology
Trowels
For archaeology, the trowel is probably the most iconic and most-often used tool. It is the same tool that masons use to apply mortar to brick walls, though in archaeology it is used to excavate in a unit when the space no longer allows for the use of a shovel. There is a long-standing (but usually good-natured) debate in the archaeology community about whether a pointed or square-ended trowel is better. Opinions vary among the archaeologists at New Philadelphia as well, but it really is all up to the personal preference of the user!
For archaeology, the trowel is probably the most iconic and most-often used tool. It is the same tool that masons use to apply mortar to brick walls, though in archaeology it is used to excavate in a unit when the space no longer allows for the use of a shovel. There is a long-standing (but usually good-natured) debate in the archaeology community about whether a pointed or square-ended trowel is better. Opinions vary among the archaeologists at New Philadelphia as well, but it really is all up to the personal preference of the user!
Shovels
Shovels, either rounded or squared, are used as the primary excavating tool, most especially in units where very few or no features or artifacts are discovered. They are used because they allow for more soil to be moved in a shorter time, as opposed to only ever excavating with trowels. Soil is shoveled either into buckets (usually 5-gallon size) and then carried to the screen, or is shoveled directly into the screen itself.
Shovels, either rounded or squared, are used as the primary excavating tool, most especially in units where very few or no features or artifacts are discovered. They are used because they allow for more soil to be moved in a shorter time, as opposed to only ever excavating with trowels. Soil is shoveled either into buckets (usually 5-gallon size) and then carried to the screen, or is shoveled directly into the screen itself.
Screens
Screens are used to sift the soil that comes from each unit in order to search for and better spot artifacts. The most common screen varieties are the tripod and box (or personal) screen, both of which are used at New Philadelphia. Soil is poured into the screen from either a bucket or a shovel, then shaken back and forth to allow the lighter soil to fall through the screen mesh, while heavier artifacts will stay inside the screen box.
Screens are used to sift the soil that comes from each unit in order to search for and better spot artifacts. The most common screen varieties are the tripod and box (or personal) screen, both of which are used at New Philadelphia. Soil is poured into the screen from either a bucket or a shovel, then shaken back and forth to allow the lighter soil to fall through the screen mesh, while heavier artifacts will stay inside the screen box.
Handbrooms/Dustpans
Handbrooms and dustpans are used while excavating a unit in order to more effeciently move the soil out. Handbrooms help to keep the "floor" of a unit clean, especially before a photograph is taken of it. Dustpans help to move soil out of the unit at a faster pace when archaeologists have begun only using their trowels. Soil can be scraped into the dustpan then dumped into a bucket, instead of moving soil one trowelful at a time.
Handbrooms and dustpans are used while excavating a unit in order to more effeciently move the soil out. Handbrooms help to keep the "floor" of a unit clean, especially before a photograph is taken of it. Dustpans help to move soil out of the unit at a faster pace when archaeologists have begun only using their trowels. Soil can be scraped into the dustpan then dumped into a bucket, instead of moving soil one trowelful at a time.
Tape Measures
Tape measures are used to make sure that the size of the unit and the depth of each level are as exact as possible according to our field manual's regulations. They are also used when creating maps of units, as knowing the distance between artifacts or layers of soil will make the map much more accurrate.
Line Levels/Plumb Bobs
Line levels and plumb bobs are primarily used in mapping features and excavation units. Line levels are attached to the strings that are used to outline the units and the diagonal string in order to be able to better measure the depth of each level and any artifacts that may be found. Plumb bobs are used in conjunction with the measuring tape while mapping in order to provide a precise location for any feature boundary or artifacts that may be in the walls or floor of a unit.
Line levels and plumb bobs are primarily used in mapping features and excavation units. Line levels are attached to the strings that are used to outline the units and the diagonal string in order to be able to better measure the depth of each level and any artifacts that may be found. Plumb bobs are used in conjunction with the measuring tape while mapping in order to provide a precise location for any feature boundary or artifacts that may be in the walls or floor of a unit.
Cameras
Film and digital cameras are used at New Philadelphia in order to take official images of the floor and walls of each level of each excavation unit, artifacts, and occasionally candid shots of the crew.
Film and digital cameras are used at New Philadelphia in order to take official images of the floor and walls of each level of each excavation unit, artifacts, and occasionally candid shots of the crew.
Transit/Total Station
A transit or total station is a computer-like tool used in surveying an archaeological site (though architects and civil engineers use them as well). This equipment is used to create a map of the site, using GPS and spatial data which records exact locations and heights of specific points.
A transit or total station is a computer-like tool used in surveying an archaeological site (though architects and civil engineers use them as well). This equipment is used to create a map of the site, using GPS and spatial data which records exact locations and heights of specific points.
Soil Core
basic soil core is a small metal tube with a handle at the top that is used for probing specific areas in the soil in search of buried artifacts or features. Once a specific spot is marked for coring, the archaeolgist pushes the core into the ground using their body weight, then pulls it back out to inspect the soil within it. If artifacts or a significant soil change is present, that area may be a good prospect for excavation. Soil cores are also useful in locating sub-soil foundations; if a number of cores in a row were stopped by hard resistance, it is likely there is a feature buried in that location.
basic soil core is a small metal tube with a handle at the top that is used for probing specific areas in the soil in search of buried artifacts or features. Once a specific spot is marked for coring, the archaeolgist pushes the core into the ground using their body weight, then pulls it back out to inspect the soil within it. If artifacts or a significant soil change is present, that area may be a good prospect for excavation. Soil cores are also useful in locating sub-soil foundations; if a number of cores in a row were stopped by hard resistance, it is likely there is a feature buried in that location.
Tongue Depressors/Dental Picks
Wooden tongue depressors and dental picks, just like the kinds you see at your doctor and dentists' offices, are often used at archaeological sites. These small tools allow for the removal of soil in very tight or small locations in a unit, or can be used to clean off larger or more sturdy artifacts.
Wooden tongue depressors and dental picks, just like the kinds you see at your doctor and dentists' offices, are often used at archaeological sites. These small tools allow for the removal of soil in very tight or small locations in a unit, or can be used to clean off larger or more sturdy artifacts.
Digging Tools
A pickaxe or mattock is particularly useful for breaking up and removing very hard compacted spoil. Shovels and spades are used to clear away bulk debris left from picks and mattocks. Other hand tools used in bulk clean up work would include hoes, rakes, forks, and of course the wheelbarrow to cart it all away. In some circumstances all of the spoil will be fine sieved, from the wheelbarrow, before dumping into a waste area.
A pickaxe or mattock is particularly useful for breaking up and removing very hard compacted spoil. Shovels and spades are used to clear away bulk debris left from picks and mattocks. Other hand tools used in bulk clean up work would include hoes, rakes, forks, and of course the wheelbarrow to cart it all away. In some circumstances all of the spoil will be fine sieved, from the wheelbarrow, before dumping into a waste area.
Health and Safety Kit
Many archaeological digging sites are in hot remote areas where access to medical facilities is often not possible. A wise archaeologist will enter the site well prepared for the conditions. For example, at a hot, dry digging site the personal support kit might consist of many litres of cold water, broad rimmed hat, sun cream, insect repellent, first aid kit, and a portable shade system.
Many archaeological digging sites are in hot remote areas where access to medical facilities is often not possible. A wise archaeologist will enter the site well prepared for the conditions. For example, at a hot, dry digging site the personal support kit might consist of many litres of cold water, broad rimmed hat, sun cream, insect repellent, first aid kit, and a portable shade system.
Equipment used off site
Meanwhile, back in the archaeological laboratory, technicians are using microscopes, x-ray machines, performing chemical analysis experiments, re-photographing with infra-red, ultra-violet and other specialist photographic techniques as they play their part in the complexity of archaeological excavation.
Meanwhile, back in the archaeological laboratory, technicians are using microscopes, x-ray machines, performing chemical analysis experiments, re-photographing with infra-red, ultra-violet and other specialist photographic techniques as they play their part in the complexity of archaeological excavation.
Ventilation, lighting and heating
These are crucial in archaeology sites, ventilation will be needed for when either there are large amounts of dust coming from the dirt circulating the room. Lighting will be needed too if they are working into the night as well as having extra lighting to help in spots that need more light. Heating and cooling too will help the process of the workers if its a hot climate they will be fans to help keep them cool, the same as the cold climates heaters will be needed. This is to ensure that the health and the abilities of the workers will be good and wont effect the health of the person or the ability of the workers.
These are crucial in archaeology sites, ventilation will be needed for when either there are large amounts of dust coming from the dirt circulating the room. Lighting will be needed too if they are working into the night as well as having extra lighting to help in spots that need more light. Heating and cooling too will help the process of the workers if its a hot climate they will be fans to help keep them cool, the same as the cold climates heaters will be needed. This is to ensure that the health and the abilities of the workers will be good and wont effect the health of the person or the ability of the workers.
Places of work
This type of Archaeology will be all around the great Mediterranean civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
after Feild work
Once the field work is complete or still on going the finding will be needed to be taken back to a lab maybe onsite or away from site to analyse and record the data. The shelter on site will again need to be built according to the surroundings. Example if in a warm climate such as Africa where it does not rain as much the shelter can be basic and will have to be air conditioned where as a shelter in a cold climate such as Russia it will have to be insulated and heating will have to be undertaken.
Physical requirments
Assignments will require a combination of strenuous field work and sedentary office work. Field work may necessitate strenuous exertion including hiking, climbing steep slopes, stooping, bending and exposure to sun, wind and rain.
Not only that but when excavating the strain of digging and removing the debris from the ground, working on hands and knees most of the time bent over.
Not only that but when excavating the strain of digging and removing the debris from the ground, working on hands and knees most of the time bent over.
Work environment
Some duties will be performed outdoors. Incumbent must be able to prepare for, and cope with uncomfortable weather conditions that may include temperature extremes (cold snowy winter/spring, hot, dry summer). Hazardous environmental conditions may exist on work sites, such as falling/rolling rock. Incumbent will be required to work in awkward or strained positions that require stooping, stretching, bending, etc, in areas with heights and depressions often in the company of insects, rodents, or poisonous reptiles. Field work requires extensive walking, including traversing deep canyons, often through rock outcrops or dense vegetation, carrying heavy packs of tools and equipment. Incumbent may be required to camp for extended periods under primitive camping conditions.
accommodation that the group might need when working on site
Site requirements:
Toilets
Offices
Labs (depending)
Canteen/ Place for food
Place for sleeping (depending)
Washrooms
Showers
First aid room
Toilets
Offices
Labs (depending)
Canteen/ Place for food
Place for sleeping (depending)
Washrooms
Showers
First aid room